Physical punishment was also linked to a host of developmental and academic issues
A comprehensive new study has confirmed that physically punishing children—such as through spanking, slapping, or shaking—leads to numerous harmful effects, including poor academic performance, impaired mental and physical health, and disrupted social-emotional development.
Published in Nature Human Behaviour, the study analyzed data from 195 previous research papers conducted between 2002 and 2024. It represents one of the most extensive global reviews on corporal punishment to date and highlights the widespread and enduring damage physical punishment inflicts on children across diverse socioeconomic and cultural contexts.
Researchers at New York University’s Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development spearheaded the analysis. They found no evidence to support any positive outcomes from the use of corporal punishment. In fact, every area studied—ranging from school performance to behavioral health—revealed consistent patterns of harm.
“The consistency and strength of these findings suggest that physical punishment is universally harmful to children and adolescents,” said lead author Jorge Cuartas, Assistant Professor of Applied Psychology at NYU. “The research makes a strong case for ending this outdated practice globally and replacing it with positive, evidence-based parenting methods.”
A Wide Range of Adverse Effects
Children subjected to physical punishment were found to suffer from significantly impaired parent-child relationships. The experience of being hit or physically disciplined often fosters resentment and emotional distance, rather than respect or improved behavior.
Moreover, such children face a greater risk of experiencing or perpetrating violence later in life. The study noted higher incidents of intimate partner violence among adults who were physically disciplined as children. These individuals also tended to have more approving attitudes toward violence, further perpetuating cycles of abuse and aggression.
Physical punishment was also linked to a host of developmental and academic issues. These included delayed language acquisition, impaired executive function (which affects decision-making and self-control), and lower overall academic achievement. Children’s sleep quality, motor skills, and cognitive development were also negatively affected.
Social-emotional consequences were equally severe. Increased instances of anxiety, depression, and withdrawal—collectively known as internalising behaviors—were common, as were externalising behaviors such as aggression and defiance. Overall, these children showed more behavioral problems than their peers who were not physically disciplined.
No Exceptions by Income or Geography
The review encompassed studies from 92 low- and middle-income countries and noted that the negative consequences of corporal punishment were consistent across all economic contexts. This finding counters the belief that physical discipline may be culturally appropriate or less harmful in certain regions.
Despite this, most legal bans on corporal punishment have occurred in high-income countries, typically those with a gross national income above $14,000 per capita. As of 2024, 65 nations have implemented full or partial bans on physical punishment of children, following a 2006 call by the United Nations to prohibit all forms of violence against children.
The study urges a broader, more urgent push for policy changes and public education in low- and middle-income countries, where corporal punishment remains widely practiced and socially accepted.
A Global Call to Action
The researchers emphasized the need for governments, educators, and health professionals to support non-violent parenting strategies. They called for further research into culturally appropriate alternatives and community-level interventions that protect children’s rights and promote their holistic development.
“Moving forward, more research is needed to identify effective strategies for preventing physical punishment on a global scale and ensuring that children are protected from all forms of violence,” said Cuartas.
This landmark study serves as a powerful reminder that physical punishment is not a disciplinary tool, but a barrier to children’s growth and well-being—one that societies worldwide must work to dismantle.
